Biography of Obafemi Awolowo-Free-Samples-Myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Write a biography on Obafemi Awolowo, a Nigerian patriarch. Answer: Obafemi Awolowo was a leader and politician from Nigeria. He was also a Yoruba Chief. He was a native of Ikenne, Ogun State, Nigeria. He started as a regional political leader, as was the case with most other pre-independence contemporaries. He is considered as the founding father of Nigeria, and he had found in a number of organizations which included the Egbe Omo Oduduwa Trade Unions Congress of Nigeria as well as the political party named the Action Group. Awolowo was an active journalist and as a young man, he was also a trade unionist. He had edited The Nigerian Worker and some other publications. He also organized the Nigerian Produce Traders Association. He also acted as the secretary of Nigerian Motor Transport Union. Awolowo had graduated after completing his Bachelor of Commerce degree in Nigeria. Then he moved on to London to get a law degree. Awolowo was also a part of the Nigerian delegation that has taken part in the Constitutional talks that took place in London in 195 7. Another achievement was that he was the first premiere of Western Region according to the parliamentary system of Nigeria from 1954 to 1960. Later on, in the federal parliament to the Balewa government, Awolowo was the official leader of opposition from 1960 to 1963. He was put in jail on a charge of sedition in 1963. Later on, in 1967, he was pardoned and released from jail by the military government (Makinde and Obafemi, 2002). He became the finance minister from 1967 to 1971. He also unsuccessfully contested the presidential elections in 1979 and 1983. It was only in 1993 that the democracy had been restored in Nigeria after the 1966 coup. They start of the military regime in Nigeria was described as Awalowo as a Nigeria entering into a "dismal tunnel". He was aware of the challenge to hold the competing regions of Nigeria together as well as keeping the tribes under single federal system, which was considered to be the largest challenge for the newly born nation-state. He was in favor of local autonomy that was based on the ethno-linguistic identity of different regions. He also favored that the larger reasons should be split into smaller states (Meredith, 2005). Since then, 36 states have been created in Nigeria. The impact of the policies and ideas of Awolowo can even be seen today, particularly in the South, where it is considered that education and welfare programs play an important role in the task of creating citizens who can discharge their responsibilities of self-governance by taking active part in civil society (Dudley, 1978). As in this case, rivalries and competing interests are involved, generally the res ult of the issue of how the center has distributed the resources, equitable and just systems should be present in Nigeria that can also make sure the, the government is vested in all the persons and not only in elite persons (Adegbesan, 1988). In this way, Awolowo is considered as the founding father of the nation, and his legacy needs to be examined (Rotberg, 2004). The birth of Obafemi Awolowo took place in Ikenne, in Western Nigeria. His father was a farmer and he was educated at the church schools. Awolowo was working as an assistant teacher before it decided to go to Wesley College in Ibanadan as he wanted to get training as an educator. From there, he graduated in 1927. On the religious side, he was a Wesleyan Methodist. He joined a clerical position in the college in 1932 (Adekola, 2002). Later on, in 1934, he went into creating business and started to work for the Motor Transporter and the Produce Trader. This was a time when he also started to write articles for newspapers (Awolowo, 1981). He was behind the foundation of Nigerian Produce Traders Association. Similarly, he was also acting as the editor of The Nigerian Worker. Gradually, he also assumed the charge as the secretary of Nigerian Motor Transport Union. In 1937, he got married to Hannah Idowu Dideolu and the couple had three daughters and two sons. Awolowo had organized a successful strike in 1937. This strike was organized to oppose the "inequitable and unjust" colonial legislations. He was playing and a key role in the Nigerian Youth Movement (NYM) by the early 1940s (Makinde, 2007). He became the branch secretary of the NYM in Ibadan in 1940. In the same way, he also started an agitation in 1942 due to which reforms took place in the Ibadan Native Authority Advisory Board (Shillington, 2005). Similarly, he also co-founded the Trades Union Congress in Nigeria in 1943. He also organized a large-scale protest in 1944 to oppose the ban on the export of palm kernel. As a result of this ground level activism, the common people were convinced that they could face the British and even win (Ogunmodede, 1986). They also started to believe that they can challenge the colonial system in Africa as was done in India and the independence struggle of India but behind these civil disobedience tactics adopted by Awoolowo (Sklar, 2004). He ach ieved a bachelor of commerce degree in 1944, being an external student from the London University. He went to London in 1944 to study law. When he was in London, he took part in founding the Egbe Omo Oduduwa (it was a society of the descendents of Oduduwa, who were the ancestors of people speaking Yoruba). The main purpose of this organization is to study and to preserve the culture of the Yoruba (Simpson, 2006). This organization was launched in 1948 in Lagos (Duffy, J. and Manners (eds.). 1961). On November 18, 1946, Owolowo had qualified as a barrister at the Inner Temple and he returned to Nigeria. He had established a significant legal practice. Between 1947 and 1951 Owolowo worked as an advocate and a solicitor in the Supreme Court of Nigeria. Awolowo took his last breath on May 9, 1987 in his hometown, Ikenne. The politics of Awolowo: He had co-founded the action group in 1950 in the form of the political wing of Egbe Omo Oduduwa. This was mainly based in the Western Region, which was dominated by the Yoruba (Nolte, 2009). He was also elected to the assembly and he became the Minister of local Government in 1951 and remained in this position until 1954. During 1952 and 53, Awolowo undertook extensive travels and he visited Egypt, Ceylon, Pakistan and India. In these countries he discussed anticolonial struggle and self-determination (Weiner and Ergun, 1987). He particularly admired Jawaharlal Nehru. He also, published his autobiography, in the newspaper of the Action Group, The Tribune that had been founded by him in 1949 (Trask, 2004). After the constitutional changes that were introduced in 1954, Awolowo became the first Premiere of Eastern Region. Similarly in this year, he was also appointed the honorary Chief of the Yoruba. He had also taken part in the Constitutional talks that had taken place in London and Ghana in 1953, 57 and 58. This was the time when he also went to the United States, Italy, Germany and Japan. These visits were undertaken with a view to encourage trade relations with these countries (Makinde, 2009). On the eve of independence, in 1959, he resigned from Premiership with a view to take part in elections for the Federal assembly. Samuel Akintola became the opinion (Adebayo, 1988). The Hausa Fulani People's Congress had won the elections, along with the Eastern national Council of Nigeria (Richard, 2008). A Northern politician, Balewa became the Prime Minister of the country and Awolowo took charge as the official leader of opposition (Nwanwene, 1970). The policies of Awolowo: he had always believed that the resources of Nigeria should be generalized into education and the development of state led infrastructure. A controversy is also erupted when Awolowo had introduced free primary education at the considerable cost him all the Western region and he also established free television service in Africa (Zachernuk, 1988). In the same way, he expanded the electrification projects by using the income from highly profitable cocoa export industry (Ogunmodede, 1986). Even if he was very popular in the Western Nigeria, among the Yoruba, he became unpopular with the supposedly largest political bloc of the nation (the Northern, Muslim, Northern Peoples Congress) as a result of his left leanings. A lot of Nigerians were of the opinion that his policies were being dictated by the government of UK (Sklar, 1963). As compared to Nnamdi Akikwe of the NCNC, who was the first president of Nigeria in 1963, Awolowo was in favor of autonomy that was ba sed on ethno-linguistic identity (Shillington, 2005). Western Nigeria crisis: there were serious disagreement between Awolowo and Akintola regarding the way the Western region should be run. As a result, Akintola made an alliance with the NPC federal government, which was led by Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. However, there were many persons in the Akintola's faction who were of the opinion that the preeminent position in business was being lost by the Yorubas and also the administration to Igbos due to the decision made by the NCNC to take part in the ruling coalition (Oke, Olatunji, Adebayo and Femi, (eds.). 2009). On the other hand, the opinion of Awolowo was that much more can be achieved by winning the next election without forming a coalition with the NCP. Some of the persons who were in favor of a partnership with the NCP were Muslim, and the others were "anti-Awolowo". The result was that accusations were made by each region against the others that they had received unfair share in jobs and resources (Olufemi, 1986). An unsuccessful at tempt was made to replace Akintola when his faction disrupted the assembly proceedings, and one member was even going to club the speaker. As a result of this crisis, Balewa had declared state of emergency in the Western region. He had also appointed administrator for the region (Nathaniel, 2008). Under these circumstances, the Nigerian National Democratic Party was formed by Akintola. This newly formed by the easily defeated the Action Group remnant in the elections that took place subsequently even if Awolowo commonly believed that the elections were rigged (Ikelegbe, 1988). In 1962, Awolowo and many other persons were charged by the government and after a trial that went on for 11 months, they were jailed for conspiring with some Ghanians including Kwame Nkrumah for overthrowing the government (Rotberg, 2004). The sentence was imprisoned for 10 years. In a book written by him in 1966, Thoughts on the Nigerian Constitution, he had defended federalism but at the same time, he had also recommended that 18 smaller states should be created that can replace the regions (Meredith, 2005). The Action Group remnants took part in the national elections in 1965 and had entered into an alliance with mainly Igbo and south-eastern national Council of Nigeria, as well as the NCNC. The elections were won by the NPC-NNDP even while there were accusations of fraud and Balewa remained the Prime Minister of the country. The result was that violent riots took place in many parts of the Western region (Olufemi, 1991). Major three political parties were dominated by various ethnic groups and effectively they were regional parties that were taking part in the national elections. The seats in the national assembly were in proportion to the population of these regions. As the North had the highest population, it was also guaranteed to win more seats. In the Western and Eastern regions, there was a suspicion that NCP had given unfair advantages to the North and in this region; the oil revenue was also produced (Weiner and zbudun, 1987). The aftermath of these elections included a military coup led by the Igbo on January 15, 1966. In this coup, the Prime Minister had been killed, and also Ahmadau Bello, the Premier of the Northern Region. After this military coup, there was a counter coup on January 16, 1966. This resulted in the establishment of a national military government. A third coup took place on July 29, which overthrew this government itself. Pardon was given to Chief Awolowo and he was released from prison by the coup leaders (Olufemi, 2004). Awolowo tried to broker a peace agreement when civil wars started on the issue of the secession of the Eastern Region (Sklar, 2004). After the failure of the limitations, Awolowo was made the finance minister in the government of Nigeria. He also gives approval when 12 Statesville established by the government in 1967. However, he was not pleased because this was not done on the basis of ethnolinguistic cohesiveness. In the book written by him in 1967, The People's Republic, he had favored federalism, socialism and democracy. According to him, all these are necessary for creating a prosperous and stable Nigeria (Awolowo and 'Biodun, 1987). He resigned from his post after a year of the end of the war. The reason was that the realized that they had very little influence on the policies made by the government and also due to the reason that he had continuously opposed the military rule. After many years of private practice as an attorney, Awolowo founded the Unity Party of Nigeria in 1979. This party was founded as the successor of the Action Group. It took part in the presidential elections that were held in 1979. However, he lost the elections to Alhaji Shehu Shagari by nearly 400,000 votes as the elections were heavily rigged. He again took part in the presidential elections in 1983. This time he lost to Shagari by nearly 4,000,000 votes. However, Awolowo considered that the elections were fraudulent. However in the Yoruba dominated areas, his party did well (Adegbola and Bankole, 1997). The legacy of Awolowo: the University of Ife has been rechristened as Obafemi Awolowo University in the memory of the leader. His portrait can be found on one hundred naira, the currency notes of Nigeria. The legacy of religion is also honored by the Obafemi Awolowo Foundation. He has been described by the experts as the most cherished philosopher and political thinker of Africa. It has also been mentioned as the memorial website that he was a sage and a philosopher king. Awolowo also gets the credit for building the first stadium in West Africa, as well as the first television station in Africa. His civil service is considered as the best in Africa and that time. He is also known for introducing free healthcare in the Western region in the age of 18. He introduced free and compulsory basic education in Western Nigeria. While in the past, the currency of Nigeria was known as the Nigerian Pound but he gave it the name of Naira. In his position as the Premier of Western Nigeria, he had achieved high distinction in public affairs management but at the same time, he was also observed the due to the lack of financial clout of power with the central government. That is perhaps the main reason due to which he made the decision to contest the national elections. It has been described as the best President Nigeria ever had and his name is still invoked while opposing autocratic and military rule. References Adebayo, A.G., 1988. Awolowo and Revenue Allocation in Nigeria. In: Oyelaran, O.O., et al. (Eds.), Obafemi Awolowo: The End of an Era? OAU Press, Ile-Ife, pp: 392 Adegbesan, P.R.A. (1988), Awolowo and the Politics of Education in Nigeria Obafemi Awolowo: The End of an Era? (ed) Olasope .O.Oyediran et al., Ile-Ife: O.A.U. Press. Adegbola, G., and Bankole O. 1997, His Truth is Marching On: A Pictorial Biography of Chief Obafemi Awolowo. Lagos, NG: Obafemi Awolowo Foundation Adekola, A. (2002), Obafemi Awolowo: The Colossus, Ibadan: Shiloh Publishers. Awolowo, O. 1981, Voice of Wisdom: Selected Speeches of Chief Obafemi Awolowo, vol. 3. Akure: Fagbamigbe Publishers. Awolowo, O. and 'Biodun O. 1987, Awo: The Nigerian Colossus. Ibadan, NG: A. Onibonoje Agencies Dudley, B. J. 1978. The Political Theory of Awolowo and Azikiwe In Onigu Otite (ed.), Themes in African Social and Political Thought, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers. Duffy, J. and Robert A. Manners (eds.). 1961. Africa Speaks. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand. Ikelegbe, O., 1988. Awolowo: The Legacy of Party Organization. In: Oyelaran, O.O., et al., (Eds.), Obafemi Awolowo: The End of an Era? OAU Press, Ile-Ife, pp: 571, 568 Makinde, M. A. 2009. Awo: The Last Conversation. Ibadan: Evans Publishers. Makinde, M. A., and Obafemi A. 2002, Awo as a Philosopher. Ile-Ife, NG: Obafemi Awolowo University Press Makinde, M.A. (2007), Political Scepticism: Nigeria and the Outside World, African Philosophy: Demise of a Controversy, Ile-Ife: Obafemi Awolowo University. Meredith, M., 2005, The Fate of Africa: From the Hopes of Freedom to the Heart of Despair: A History of Fifty Years of Independence. New York: Public Affairs Nathaniel T., 2008, African Liberators of Nigeria, Chicken Bones: A Journal. Nolte, I. 2009. Obafemi Awolowo and the Making of Remo: The Local Politics of a Nigerian Nationalist. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Nwanwene, O., 1970 Awolowos Political Philosophy Quarterly Journal of Administration, IV: 127153 Ogunmodede, F. I., 1986. Chief Obafemi Awolowos Socio-political Philosophy: A Critical Interpretation. Rome: Pontificia Universitas Urbaniana. Ogunmodede, F.I. (1986), Chief Obafemi Awolowos Socio-Political Philosophy: A Critical Interpretation, Ibadan: Intec Printers. Oke, D. O., Olatunji D., Adebayo W., and Femi A., (eds.). 2009. AWO: On the Trail of a Titan. Lagos: The Obafemi Awolowo Foundation. Olufemi, T., 1986, The Political Thought of Obafemi Awolowo Nigerian Journal of Philosophy, 6(1-2): pp. 1133. Olufemi. T., 1991, Unity in Diversity?: Obafemi Awolowo and the National Question in Nigeria. Canadian Review of Studies in Nationalism, XVIII(1-2): 4359 Olufemi. T., 2004 Post-Independence African Political Philosophy In Kwasi Wiredu (ed.), Companion to African Philosophy, Oxford: Blackwell Richard J., 2008, Nigeria: Inside the Dismal Tunnel, Current History. Retrieved September 17, 2008 Rotberg, R. I., 2004, Crafting the New Nigeria: Confronting the Challenges. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers Shillington, K. 2005, Encyclopedia of African History New York, NY: Fitzroy Dearborn Simpson, D.B. (2006), The Cultural Degradation of Universal Education: The Educational view of Robert Lewis Dabney, Journal of Libertarian Studies, Vol. 20, No 3. Sklar, R. L. 2004, Nigerian Political Parties: Power in an Emergent African Nation. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press Sklar, R., 1963. Nigerian Political Parties. Princeton University Press, Princeton, pp: 270-171. Trask, S. H. A. (2004), William Graham Summer: Against Democracy, Plutocracy, and Imperialism, Journal of Libertarian Studies,Vol. 28, No. 4 (2004). Weiner M and zbudun, E., 1987, Competitive Elections in Developing Countries (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, p237 Zachernuk, P., 1988. Awolowos Economic Thought in Historical Perspective. In: Oyelaran, O.O., et al. (Eds.), Obafemi Awolowo: The End of an Era? OAU Press, Ile-Ife, pp: 277-282.

A Sample of Interview Essay

A Sample of Interview EssayWhen it comes to writing an effective and interesting essay, the first thing that needs to be done is to get a sample of essay writing from a nonprofit organization. Now, what does the sample look like? An essay written by a nonprofit is very different from one written by a commercial publication.The sample essay sample is very important because it will help you focus on what you need to do to become a better writer. Once you get a sample of essay writing, you will see a lot of similarities between the nonprofit essay samples and those written by professional writers.The most obvious similarity between essay samples is the research skills. All essay samples, whether they are written by writers or editors, have to be researched before they are even read. This means that the research is very important in order to get the best results.It is also important to remember that a successful essay is one that provides a clear and concise explanation of the position t o be filled by the person who is to write the essay. Most people who are looking for a job find that writing about the job to be extremely time consuming. That is why hiring the services of a professional will be beneficial in the long run.The essay should also include information about the place of employment in order to make the reader more aware of the work. The main purpose of the information is to build the reader's interest and thus make him or her want to read the essay. This type of information will be very helpful in the acceptance of the job application.One of the best ways to gather information is to read the same job posting repeatedly. This will allow you to see the type of skills that are needed and which qualities are the most needed in the position that is to be filled. These essays can also be used as samplesof essay writing for further consideration.One other thing that the interview essay sample will show you is how the essay should be formatted. It is important t o create an essay that can be easily read. The way in which the sentences are written and the line breaks should all be well thought out.If you have not written an essay before, you should try writing one using your own experience. Keep in mind that research is just as important as writing skill. A good example of an essay that is written by a person with no prior experience would be the essay written by Barack Obama.

Figerouas Framework Essay Example

Figerouas Framework Essay Equity affects nearly all aspects of our lives none less than sports such as beach volleyball. Sport is an integral part of today’s society and as such, sport should be organised, participated in and distributed in an equitable manner. The aim of equity in sports is to encourage all people, regardless of age, gender, disability or ethnic origin to participate in and develop their potential within sport. Disputes over equity have been apparent in our society for hundreds of years, over such things as gender, religion or race.A framework developed by Figueroa deals with equity. It consists of five levels that link together – individual, interpersonal, institutional, structural and cultural. The following paragraphs demonstrate the use of Figueroa Framework as a tool to analyse the barriers to my performance in beach volleyball and part of this involves a peer evaluation (Appendix A). Each of these levels interacts with equity issues in various ways. These numerous levels deal with social beliefs, values, social position, power, media coverage, resources and rewards (Kirk et al, 2004).Each of the five levels mentioned above relates to the others in some way. Equity and Access Two concepts that are important to sociology are the closely linked ideas of equity and access. Equity is studied to determine whether resources are distributed fairly to all members of a society. Sociologists also study whether all individuals within a society have access to resources or whether barriers or obstacles are in place to prevent certain groups of people from accessing them.In sport, studying equity and access helps us to understand why some people are less likely than others to participate in sport and physical activity. Different types of barriers—which can vary from the financial cost of sporting equipment to cultural attitudes about the types of activities that are appropriate for males and females—can restrict individuals’ access to some spo rts and physical activities. Many would argue that it is impossible to provide exactly the same opportunities and access to all members of society.For example, is it realistic to expect that a teenager living on a remote cattle station will have the same access to surfing as another teenager living in a coastal town? While some barriers, such as distance, cannot easily be overcome, many barriers that relate to people’s beliefs and attitudes about sport and physical activity can be removed. The study of equity and access in sport is primarily about reducing and removing the unreasonable and irrelevant barriers to participation—such as discrimination, prejudices and stereotyping.This may require a shift in current attitudes. For these reasons, the sociological study of access and equity in sport looks primarily at social attitudes and expectations that create barriers to participation—in particular, how such barriers are formed, how they are reinforced, how they i nfluence individuals’ behaviour Cultural level History, cultural identity, socialisation, social construction of gender stereotypes, hegemonic masculinity, ethnic background Structural level Policies, funding, media, development programs, marketing, sponsorship Institutional levelCommunity, school, facilities, rules, religion Interpersonal level Peers, family, teachers, coaches, role models Interpersonal level Peers, family, teachers, coaches, role models Individual level Values, attitudes, personality, genes The cultural level The cultural level of Figueroa’s framework includes a society’s values, beliefs and attitudes, which are the product of factors that include the social group’s history, culture and ethnic background. Society’s values, beliefs and attitudes shape and infl uence equity in and access to sport.For example, consider the cultural attitudes to masculinity, femininity and sport. Traditionally, sport has been seen as a male domain; w omen have been seen as supporters or as people without interest in sport. Sports that are appropriate for men and those that are appropriate for women have been clearly differentiated. As these cultural barriers are slowly removed, women are gaining greater access and opportunities in sport. A society’s history and culture also affect sporting culture in other ways.Cultural factors can infl uence the type of sports that individuals within that society participate in. For example, consider the sports that are regularly watched or played in Queensland. Are they different from the sports preferred in Western Australia or somewhere further away, such as Canada? Such differences are the results of different sporting cultures. The structural level The structural level of Figueroa’s framework includes the infl uence of government, business and the media.Applying this level of Figueroa’s framework to sport means investigating the relationship between the media and sport s promotion, the allocation of government funding for sports programs, and how the corporate sector affects sport and sports participation through sponsorship and other funding. For example, the Australian government funds and operates several organisations—such as the Australian Sports Commission—that aim to improve sports participation, promote equity and access to sport for all Australians, and improve Australians’ sporting performance.It is the structural level that provides many insights into how funding is allocated to sport. The institutional level The institutional level of Figueroa’s framework level examines the institutions within society that affect sport and physical activity. Institutions such as schools, community groups, sporting clubs, and religious groups are able to help shape positive attitudes to sport and physical activity. Schools feature prominently when discussing how people’s early attitudes towards sport are shaped. Some s chools with strong sporting traditions reinforce participation in sport.The sports that students are encouraged to participate in can depend on the school’s history and traditions, the facilities and equipment available, and the expertise of the teachers. The institutional level is not just about the influence of schools; it also looks at the availability of facilities and the structure of organised sport within a community. The rules of different sports are also considered as part of an analysis of the institutional level. Sporting rules, which are determined and standardised by sports’ governing organisations, can restrict access to certain groups and individuals.The interpersonal level The interpersonal level of Figueroa’s framework is used to investigate the relationships that affect whether an individual will develop a lifelong association with sport. Most of us are influenced, directly or indirectly, by the people around us. Whose role is the most crucial? Parents? Peers? Siblings? Teachers? Coaches? Sporting role models? The individual level The individual level of Figueroa’s framework examines why individuals choose to participate in physical activity. The reasons vary from person to person.For many people, the word ‘exercise’ is associated with images of unpleasant, vigorous activity that just makes them dirty, sweaty and uncomfortable. Others see exercise as something they must do to improve fitness or as a normal part of their daily life. For others, exercise is something that they do for enjoyment. While each of the other levels has some bearing, decisions about sport and physical activity are ultimately made by the individual. Genes, values, attitudes and personalities are specific to each individual. This is reflected in differences between family members.

The offence of bad language - Emphasis

The offence of bad language The offence of bad language Finally, a House of Commons report that is a cause for celebration. This is Bad Language: the Use and Abuse of Official Language the result of an investigation into the many ways in which politicians and civil servants may baffle and intimidate readers with their use of jargon-heavy, euphemism-filled waffle. By making such official documents virtually unreadable, the report points out, the public is effectively denied access to political policies that affect them. The committee behind the report are planning to crack down on perpetrators by issuing penalties for instances where poor use of language has damaging results, like a person failing to receive benefits or services they are entitled to. And while their plan is to refer to the offence of bad political language by the rather jargon-y term maladministration, we really cant do anything but applaud these announcements.

Optimum Distribution - Internet Based Socialization Essay

Optimum Distribution - Internet Based Socialization - Essay Example A recent question came to mind in which I asked myself, what all I could do if I was given five thousand dollars to invest. It was really confusing to me to choose the best from the variety of options around me. Profit is a beautiful imagination about every venture, but my concern is all about the orientation of socially organized activities basically meant for the betterment of classified members of the society. In case I had that amount to spend, I would spend it on a project that long cherished in my mind – a social networking system for the differently-abled children of special education schools that are deprived of socializing. â€Å"Socialization enables children to learn what they need to know in order to be integrated into the society in which they live† (Berns, 39). The major implication of this project will be around the mainstreaming of most of the uncared schools privately managed by individuals which are partially aided by non-profit organizations. My propo sal is maintaining a virtual socialization spectrum for the children, which gives them exposure to the world of internet and allied amenities of the present world. In order to meet this purpose, I would regularly meet affluent philanthropists for over six months of time and explain them everything about my plan. The plan would include the development of software with the help of computer professionals for social interaction with all the charitable organizations and the creamy layer members of the society among doctors, contractors or businessmen. This software would be introduced to all major websites and social networking sites through regular advertisements. In the meantime, I would arrange a team of special school education to take sample surveys of requirements of the target groups in various cultures and living standards. The focus would be given to the variables like their age, physical standards, areas of interest and degree of disability.  Based on the information of the surveys, I would design special windows for gaming, chatting and other activities of interaction in the software.     Ã‚  

Business skills Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business skills - Essay Example Therefore setting strategies is among the high priorities that a firm should make. According to Growth Online (n.d.), the strategy in the case of a firm includes market strategy, product and services strategies, and organizational strategies; people Strategies, and financial Strategies. After a firm has spent so much time and resources planning, and formulating strategies, the firm should figure how to implement them. This is because: For these strategies to succeed there are some essential steps to take. First, a firm needs to create an environment that can carry out the strategies successfully, second, allocate enough resources to strategy essential activities, third, create policies that will encourage strategy implementation, fourth, employ the policies, fifth, tie rewards to results, and finally utilizing strategic leadership (Rothwell & Kazanas 2003). Strategies are only applicable in the imperfect completion sort of an environment. When an environment turns perfect, the idea of strategies no longer works since there is free entry, perfect communication and firms deal in same products (Kazmi 2008). Perfect competition provides a standard for measuring the market behavior in terms of price and production (Gale & Sabourian 2005). Each firm in the market is so small that its operations do not affect the prices in the market (Williams n.d ). The market price is standardized due to the many competitors dealing in the same product hence there is no room for a firm to make super-profits (Klein 2007). The firm will operate within the earlier set standards to be able to remain in the market. This makes it hard for individual firms to set their own strategies when they enter in the perfect competitive market (Gale & Sabourian 2005). Perfect competition however is a rare occurrence. The highly probable event is that the market is imperfect allowing room for individual firms to set strategies to enhance profitability. The

Effective Performance Appraisal Essay Example for Free

Effective Performance Appraisal Essay In spite of this fact, however, there are some elements which are common to all effective performance appraisal systems, regardless of the actual method(s) used in the system. These elements will be discussed shortly. However, before examining these common links, a brief overview of performance appraisal as it is currently practised in American organisations is in order. Current Trends in Performance Appraisal As previously noted, controversy over the best performance appraisal system continues. The dilemma was highlighted in the 19 May 1980 issue of Business Week where the editors concluded that managers want a system that will pinpoint specific marginal behaviour that should be reinforced or discontinued, serve as a personnel development tool, provide a realistic assess ­ ment of an employees potential for advancement, and — a particularly hot issue in the 1980s — stand up in court as a valid defence in discrimination suits. Has the search for a best system affected what companies actually do in performance appraisal? A study conducted by Taylor and Zawacki[2] in 1981 set out to answer this question y sending a mail questionnaire to 200 firms located throughout the United States — these companies were selected at random from the Fortune 1000. Eighty-four (42 per cent) were returned and used in the study. The size of respondent firms ranged from less than 1,000 employees (nine), 1,000-5,000 employees (63), and more than 5,000 employees (12). Non-respondent firms did not vary significantly in terms of size. This study, which duplicated a previous one conducted in 1976, asked what kind of performance appraisal system was used for management and blue-collar employees. It also asked for the interval between ratings, productivity and employee reaction to the appraisal system, anticipated changes and respondent satisfaction to the present system. While it is not possible to go into all the detailed findings of this study, some of the most pertinent information is summarised below. ? While in 1976 43 per cent of the respondent firms had used a traditional performance appraisal system (e. g. , forced distribution) and 57 per cent had used a collaborative system (e. g. , MBO), in 1981 these figures had changed to 53 per cent and 47 per cent respectively. In other words, the proportion of companies using a traditional approach to performance appraisal had increased while the proportion of those using a collaborative approach had decreased. Several respondents provided written comments stating that they had changed to quantitative (i. e. traditional) systems in recent years in reaction to legal challenges to their previous collaborative system. In 1981, 39 of the 41 organisations using a traditional system used a graphic rating scale. Of the collaborative forms, 23 firms used MBO and 11 used a BARS system. The percentage of firms not satisfied with their current appraisal system increased from only nine per cent in 1976 to 47 per cent in 1981. In addition, those with collaborative systems were more likely to be satisfied, while the majority of firms with traditional systems expressed dissatisfaction. As far as the effect of the type of system used on employee attitudes went, 37 per cent of the ? IMDS January/February 1988 13 ? companies using a traditional approach felt that it had improved employee attitudes while 63 per cent felt it had not. Of those companies using a collaborative approach, 77 per cent felt it had improved employee attitudes and 23 per cent felt it had not. ? Of the 22 firms indicating that they anticipated changing their performance appraisal system in the near future, 12 were moving from a collaborative system to a traditional system. This is especially interesting in light of the fact that, in the 1976 study, the majority of firms indicating that they were considering a change said that the move would be from a traditional to a collaborative approach. While the 1981 study did not delve into the reasons behind this shift in attitude, Taylor and Zawacki conjectured that it was due to governmental and legal pressures for precise (i. e. , quantitative) measures which overwhelmed a desire to help people develop and grow towards becoming more effective employees. Of the firms surveyed, 49 per cent felt that their performance appraisal system had improved employee performance (roughly the same proportion found in 1976). However, the number of firms that did not believe employee performance had improved as a result of the appraisal process had gone from four per cent in 1976 to 19 per cent in 1981 — and none of these firms anticipated changing their system! (5) The appraiser should be given feedback regarding his/her effectiveness in the performance appraisal process. (6) The performance appraisal system, regardless of the methodology employed, must comply with legal requirements (notably, Equal Employment Opportunities guidelines). Since the factors listed above are consistently highlighted in the literature as essential elements of an effective performance appraisal system, each of them warrants individual attention. Performance Goals Must Be Clearly and Specifically Defined Special emphasis should be placed on this phase of performance appraisal, since the lack of specifically defined performance goals will undoubtedly undermine the effectiveness of the entire performance appraisal process. The key performance areas need to be identified, assigned priorities and stated in quantifiable terms whenever possible. The mutual goal-setting process between a manager and subordinate associated with Management by Objectives is a particularly beneficial way to foster acceptance and internal motivation on the part of the employee[3]. As is often the case, if multiple goals are established, they should be ranked so that the employee has a clear understanding of which areas may warrant more attention and resources than others. Furthermore, every attempt should be made to describe performance goals in terms of their time, quality, quantity, and monetary dimensions. This will reduce the opportunity for misinterpretation about what is to be accomplished and what limitations there are. The quantification of goals will also make it easier for the manager and the employee to measure the employees progress towards achieving the objectives. The need for quantifying objectives is succinctly summed up by George Ordione: If you cant count it, measure it, or describe it, you probably dont know what you want and can often forget it as a goal. There is still too much, do your best, or Ill let you know when its right, going around in todays organisations. If you cant define the desired type and level of performance in detail, then you have no right to expect your subordinate to achieve it. [4] ? To summarise, it would appear that while most firms wish to use a collaborative form of performance appraisal, they feel thwarted by outside forces (notably Equal Employment Opportunities requirements) in their attempts to implement such a system within their organisations. The dilemma, then, is finding a workable solution which will meet both constraints. The remainder of this article will take a look at these two seemingly conflicting areas (effectiveness vs. efensiveness) and how they can be integrated into a meaningful performance appraisal system. Elements of an Effective Performance Appraisal System While various authors use different names and modified descriptions for them, the following factors seem to be universally accepted by most authorities on the subjects as requisites for an effective performance appraisal system: (1) Performan ce goals must be specifically and clearly defined. (2) Attention must be paid to identifying, in specific and measurable terms, what constitutes the varying levels of performance. 3) To be effective, performance appraisal programmes should tie personal rewards to organisational performance. (4) The supervisor and employee should jointly identify ways to improve the employees performance, and then establish a development plan to help the employee achieve his/her goals. The Varying Levels of Performance While setting performance goals is a crucial first step in the process, managers also need to concentrate more attention on identifying what constitutes the varying levels of performance. If the organisation uses the typical poor, fair, good, very good and excellent scale of performance, the manager has a responsibility to identify at the beginning what levels of performance will produce a very good or excellent rating. However, setting specific goals for organisational performance is not enough — managers also need to relate performance to the individuals rewards. Agreeing on what is to be accomplished and what varying levels of performance represent in terms of evaluation and rewards is crucial for the performance appraisal process to be effective[5]. Since the first two steps of this process (i. e. , defining performance goals and setting performance standards) IMDS January/February 1988 14 are closely connected, an example of how these steps might be achieved is warranted. A prerequisite for setting performance goals is to establish job tasks. To measure performance realistically, objectively and productively, we must base our reviews on job content rather that job constructs. Constructs are broad, often self-evident terms which describe a general task, activity or requirement. Richards refers to them as garbage words in terms of their usefulness as performance standards). An example might be communication skills. While few would argue the need for skills in communication for many employees, the problem is how to define the term in light of the requirements of the specific job in question. Will the employee be required to: ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Write memos? Write letters? Conduct interviews? Deliver public speeches? Present pr oposals to clients? Describe features and benefits of a product? Resolve face-to-face conflicts? Handle customer complaints? Write job descriptions? Describe and define job standards? Manage meetings? Present ideas to top management? Initiative: Resourceful in taking necessary or appropriate action on own responsibility. Unsatisfactory Poor A routine Often waits unnecessarily worker; usually for direction. waits to be told what to do, requiring constant direction. Satisfactory Good Excellent Seeks and gets added tasks for self; highly selfreliant. Assumes responsibility. Does regular Resourceful; work without alert to waiting for opportunities directions. or Follows improvement directions with of work. little follow-up Volunteers suggestions. Table I. drinks per bottle, etc. In turn, these indicators should be broken down into measurable standards, as shown in Table II. As shown, when identifying what constitutes the varying levels of performance, we need to decide what we can expect in terms of outstanding performance, what is satisfactory and what is the minimum level of perfo rmance we can tolerate. One could argue that these are subjective determinations, and this is of course true. What is important, however, is that once these determinations have been made, performance can be measured objectively against the standard. It is important to keep in mind that standards should be set based on what we require or need in the performance of a job and not on our assessment of a specific individuals ability to do the job. Unless we specify the behaviour we want in the context of job content requirements, it will be near impossible objectively to measure someones performance under the generic construct of communication. We must determine the sort of communicating the job requires of the employee. Some organisations attempt to aid supervisors by providing rating scales which are anchored to descriptions of performance (i. e. , the BARS approach), such as the one shown in Table I. While this type of scale is certainly a vast improvement over those that offer no anchors (rating descriptions) at all, we could still argue over the ratings. The standards are subjective and unmeasurable, both undesirable traits in any performance appraisal system. To overcome these problems, the job should be broken down into responsibilities, with a series of performance indicators provided for each responsibility. In turn, these indicators should be accompanied by objective and measurable performance standards. An example will help illustrate the process. A bartenders job can be broken down into several responsibilities, including mixing drinks, cost control, inventory control, house keeping, safety, law enforcement, supervision, customer relations, etc. In turn, each of these responsibility areas can be broken down into several performance indicators. For example, performance indicators of the job responsibility mixing drinks might include complaints, returns, brands used, appearance, speed, number of Personal Rewards and Organisational Performance To be truly effective, performance appraisal programmes should tie personal rewards to organisational performance. Too many reward systems are based on time on the job, are divided evenly among employees, or offer too little incentive to increase motivation significantly. As noted by Harper[3], performance appraisal systems need to be designed with the three Es of motivation in mind. The first E refers to the exchange theory, which states that people tend to contribute to the organisations objectives as long as they believe they will be rewarded. The second E refers to the equity theory, which states that motivation is tied to the relative, rather than the absolute, size of the reward. For example, if person A does 25 per cent better than person B, but gets only five per cent more in a merit increase, then person A is likely to feel that management has actually punished him or her for doing noticeably better than person B. The third E is the expectancy theory of motivation, which asserts that motivation is a combination of the persons perceived probability (expectancy) of receiving a reward and the worth of the reward. Even when the reward is great, motivation may in fact be quite low if the employee does not believe that he or she has a reasonable chance of achieving the necessary level of performance to get the reward. Conversely, if the employee believes that the probability of receiving the reward is high, there will be little motivation if he or she does not need or value the reward. IMDS January/February 1988 15 Job: Bartender Job responsibilities Mix drinks, etc. Indicators Complaints Returns Measurements used (recipe) Brands used Appearance Time No. of drinks per bottle, etc. feedback to managers about the quality of their performance appraisal ratings would seem to have several advantages: ? ? It is relatively inexpensive and easy to develop and implement. The feedback is based on ratings made by each manager as part of the formal performance appraisal process. This enables the feedback to be tailored to the individual. The feedback can provide managers with a basis upon which to compare their ratings with those made by other managers. This normative type of feedback is rarely available to managers; as a result, there is very little information upon which they can evaluate how lenient or strict they are. A feedback system should help to ensure comparability of ratings among managers, which in turn may increase employee satisfaction with the appraisal process. That is, employees are more likely to perceive that their performance has been evaluated equitably since managers are using the same standards when evaluating performance. ? Job: Bartender Standards Job responsibilities Mix drinks Indicators Minimum Complaints 4/week Satisfactory 2/week Outstanding 0 ? Table II. In summary, then, for a performance appraisal programme to be successful in this area, it must: (1) Tie rewards to performance (2) Offer a high enough level of reward (3) Have the level of reward reflect the relative differences in the various levels of performance (4) Tailor the rewards to the needs and desires of individual employees. Development Plans Ideally, the performance appraisal programme should be comprised of two separate sessions between the manager and the employee. In the first session the manager and employee review the level of performance from the previous period — what went well, what did not, and why. This session also identifies the employees strengths as well as the areas that need to be improved. The manager then encourages the employee to prepare a development plan to be discussed at the second meeting. The development plan is intended to identify areas that should be improved upon during the coming period. The subordinate should be encouraged to: (1) Concentrate on those areas that will affect results (2) Select three or four particular areas for improvement rather than an unrealistic and unmanageable number (3) Set improvement goals that are specific and measurable[6]. Whatever the end result happens to be, the employee needs to be the principal author (although the manager should offer help and suggestions) since people tend to be more motivated to accept and implement a plan of their own making. IMDS January/February 1988 16 Indications of the usefulness of such a feedback system were documented in a study by Davis and Mount[7] in which managers were provided feedback vis a vis the ratings they gave to employees. In response to a questionnaire distributed one week after they had received feedback regarding the quality of their performance ratings, 79 per cent of the managers indicated they were either satisfied (seven per cent) or very satisfied (72 per cent) with the feedback; 93 per cent said they considered it when making subsequent performance evaluations; 70 per cent said it influenced their ratings either appreciably (47 per cent) or substantially (23 per cent), and 79 per cent said the feedback had utility for making managers ratings more comparable. The test results from this study indicated that the feedback also significantly reduced the presence of leniency error (the tendency to skew the rating distribution towards the higher rating categories) in the managers ratings. This is significant from an organisational perspective because of the multiple uses of performance ratings in organisations. Often, performance ratings are the criterion on which selection tests are validated and often provide the basis on which merit pay increases are determined. According to Davis and Mount, improving the psychometric quality of the ratings may enable the tests to be validated more effectively and provide a more equitable method for distributing pay increases — an important consideration, as previously discussed. Conforming to Guidelines Obviously, in addition to the other factors which have already been discussed, another practical consideration which must be taken into account is that any performance appraisal system, regardless of the methods employed, must comply with all Equal Employment Opportunity guidelines. While a complete discussion of this important area is beyond the scope Feedback Regarding Effectiveness It is surprising how infrequently organisations provide their managers with information about their performance appraisal ratings. However, providing of this article, the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures, put together by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) and several other agencies in 1978, deserve special mention. These procedures were meant to clarify the exact requirements which appraisal and other selection systems must meet, and include the following points: (1) To continue using an appraisal system that has adversely affected one or more protected groups, the company must demonstrate that the system is valid, that it is job related, and that it accurately measures significant aspects of job performance. (2) The company must establish that there is no other available method of achieving the same necessary business purpose that would be less discriminatory in its effects, and none can be developed. According to the courts, the plaintiff (employee), rather than the defendant (company) must show the availability of the alternatives. The EEOC has told employers what they cannot do, but it has not provided them with definitive guidelines for solving the performance appraisal puzzle. However, some help in this regard was provided in the Autumn, 1980 issue of EEO Today[8]. (1) Base your appraisal on a comprehensive job analysis. EEOC guidelines dictate that you measure job performance against specific, clearly defined standards of performance. The performance you appraise, says the EEOC, must represent major critical work behaviours as revealed by a careful job analysis. Without a clear, written statement of job responsibilities, you increase your risk of EEO liability. (7) Submit the appraisal to several reviewers, especially if it is negative. To prevent conscious or unconscious bias from creeping into the appraisal process, develop a multilevel review system. Have your superior review and sign the appraisal. This system of checks and balances will reduce the risk of losing a court action. Final Comment As can be seen from the foregoing discussion, an effective performance appraisal system involves much more than a mere annual or biennial evaluation of an employees past performance. Nonetheless, astute managers are becoming increasingly aware of the value of their human resources, viewing them as an investment rather than merely an expense or overhead to be minimised. Accordingly, many organisations are taking the time and effort necessary to develop an effective performance appraisal system in order to help their people achieve their personal goals, which in turn allows the organisation to meet its own objectives[9]. Unfortunately, many managers still object that they just do not have the time to make performance review and development an ongoing process. However, if management is defined as the ability to get things done through people, and if we accept the fact that an effective performance evaluation process helps in getting the most important and productive things accomplished, then what else should managers spend their time doing? References 1. Fletcher, C. , Whats New in Performance Appraisal? , Personnel Management, February 1984, pp. 20-2. 2. Taylor, R. L. and Zawacki, R. A. Trends in Performance Appraisal: Guidelines for Managers, Personnel Administrator, March 1984, pp. 71-80. (2) Know the details of your companys 3. Harper, S. C. , A Development Approach to Performance nondiscriminatory policies. You and every other Appraisal, Business Horizons, September-October 1983, pp. manager in the company should aim for the 68-74. uniform application of all appraisal guidelines. 4. Mellenhoff, H ow to Measure Work by Professionals, Management Review, November 1977, pp. 39-43. (3) Avoid subjective criteria. According to the Albemarle Paper Co. v. Moody decision, subjective 5. Richards, R. C. , How to Design an Objective PerformanceEvaluation System, Training, March 1984, pp. 38-43. supervisory appraisals of job performance are 6. Kellogg, M. S. , What to do About Performance Appraisal, inherently suspect if they produce adverse impact American Management Association, New York, 1975. against a protected group. To stand up to the 7. Davis, B. L. and Mount, M. K. , Design and Use of a scrutiny of the courts, these judgements must Performance Appraisal Feedback System, Personnel be considered fair and job-related. Administrator, March 1984, pp. 1-7. 8. Block, J. R. , Performance Appraisal on the Job: Making it (4) Document! Keep records. That is the only way Work, Prentice-Hall, Inc. , Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1981. you can support whatever subjective judge ­ 9. Butler, R. J. and Yorks, L. , A New Appraisal System as ments creep into the appraisal process. (They Organizational Change: GEs Task Force Approach, are inevitabl e. ) Personnel, January-February 1984, pp. 31-42. (5) Aim for a group of appraisers who have common demographic characteristics with the group being appraised. This criterion was established in Rowe v. General Motors. When only white males appraise blacks, Hispanics, women and other protected groups, the courts question the fairness of the. system. Once a system is challenged and shown to have adverse impact, the company must prove its validity. (6) Never directly or indirectly imply that race, colour, religion, sex, age, national origin, handicap, or veteran status was a factor in your appraisal decision. Making any disciminatory statement, orally or in writing, will make your organisation subject to court action. Additional Reading Kaye, B. L. and Krantz, S. , Preparing Employees: The Missing Link in Performance Appraisal Training, Personnel, May-June 1982, pp. 23-9. Performance Appraisal: Curre. Practices and Techniques, Personnel, May-June 1984, pp. 5799. Heneman, R. L. and Wexley, K. W. , The Effects of Time Delay in Rating and Amount of Information Observed on Performance Rating Accuracy, Academy of Management Journal, December 1983, pp. 677-86. The Trouble with Performance Appraisal, Training, April 1984, pp. 91-2. Gehrman, D B. , Beyond Todays Compensation and Performance Appraisal Systems, Personnel Administrator, March 1984, pp. 21-33. IMDS January/February 1988 17